Modern hydrography and the contribution of autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs)

Abstract

Hydrography is the discipline focused on measuring and describing the physical characteristics of oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers. Its primary objective is to characterize and measure the seabed to map navigable waters and potential hazards. Traditionally oriented toward maritime safety and nautical charting, hydrography has gradually broadened to include marine environmental studies, resource exploration and management, natural hazard prevention, and support for offshore economic activities. The rapid evolution of acoustic, geospatial, and digital technologies has transformed this science, making it more precise, faster, and better integrated. The arrival of robots—particularly Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs)—marks a major technological shift in how hydrographic data are acquired.

Thanks to their autonomy, precision, and ability to operate in complex environments, AUVs have become indispensable tools for 21st‑century hydrography.

This article presents the foundations of hydrography, its methods, principal instruments, application domains, and its perspectives for the 21st century. It also synthesizes the contributions of AUVs, their limitations, and prospects for future development.

1. Introduction

Hydrography occupies a strategic place in maritime history and remains a key discipline for governments, scientists, and industrial stakeholders.

From the earliest rudimentary sea charts to today’s 3D numerical models, hydrography has evolved in step with technological progress. It now addresses multiple challenges: navigation safety, seabed mapping, inspection of submerged structures, marine environmental protection, monitoring of offshore works (dredging, construction), resource exploitation, anticipation of natural hazards, and support to military operations.

As an applied branch of geophysics and oceanography, hydrography focuses on measuring and describing the seafloor and the physical characteristics of aquatic environments. The discipline has evolved considerably over the centuries—from manual depth measurements using a lead line and plotting the “sounding” on a chart—to the combined use of high‑resolution multibeam echo sounders, GPS/GNSS, and inertial navigation systems. Traditionally conducted from ships equipped with acoustic sensors, the discipline is now undergoing a major transformation with the emergence of drones, notably autonomous underwater vehicles known as AUVs (Autonomous Underwater Vehicles).

The growing use of these innovative platforms helps overcome many limitations of classical methods while opening new fields of application. This article explores the foundations of modern hydrography and highlights the contributions and challenges associated with using AUVs.

2. Fundamentals of Hydrography

2.1 History of Hydrography

Historically, ships navigated by keeping the coastline within sight. In 1187, the invention of the magnetic compass and its combined use with marine charts revolutionized routing and open‑sea navigation. These early charts were hand‑drawn from mariners’ observations during voyages. Planar representation required projecting magnetic observations, which in turn improved cartographic methods. Charts made it possible to plot and follow routes and thus were guarded carefully, conferring economic and military advantages to their holders.

As transoceanic voyages and commerce expanded, hydrographic surveys were commissioned to ensure navigational safety. These strategic data soon became the subject of organized survey campaigns by states and major economic powers. Techniques evolved from magnetic‑compass positioning and lead‑line soundings to the adoption of onboard electronics, space‑based positioning, and advanced acoustic technologies—enabling ever more precise exploration of the seafloor.

2.2 Main Objectives

Hydrography aims to describe seafloor morphology via measurement of soundings (the water depth relative to a vertical reference, typically the chart datum). These soundings are determined at horizontal coordinates (positioning). This measurement—bathymetry—allows depths to be charted on maps. Such measurements underpin the creation of nautical charts and thus the safety of maritime traffic, especially near coasts. Hydrography also addresses seafloor type—whether sand, gravel, or rock—and whether it features bedforms such as ripples and dunes, or obstacles such as wrecks. These characteristics enable habitat mapping, for example seagrass meadows or mudflats.

Acoustic systems used for sub‑bottom profiling can also image the subsurface beneath the seabed in the form of profiles. These allow construction of 3D models of sedimentary or rock layers below the seafloor. Magnetometry data may likewise be collected to characterize magnetic anomalies on the seafloor and further enrich seafloor knowledge.

Other parameters monitored by hydrographic activity include oceanographic variables such as temperature, salinity, and currents. Tidal measurement is also an important component of hydrography, enabling prediction of water levels at navigational locations according to the forecast tide.

These different measurements support mapping and databases used across navigation, exploration, resource management, construction, and defense. Hydrography thus acquires geographic and geophysical data over water bodies to produce databases, nautical charts, and hydrographic models. Today, while paper charts still exist, most chart products compile digital information and are used in marine navigation, oceanographic data representation, and modeling.

Concretely, hydrographic data are widely used for subsea dredging, anchoring, pipeline laying, cable routes, and the search for wrecks such as the Titanic. Hydrographic information also supports the study of marine organisms and their behavior through habitat mapping and water‑quality measurements. Hydrography contributes to the safety of recreational boating and commercial navigation and underpins maritime tourism—pillars of many national economies. The overall importance of hydrography is difficult to quantify due to the varied economic benefits water bodies provide. In effect, all water‑related investments rely on hydrography for context, management, and future use.

2.3 Standards and Specifications

The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) sets global standards (e.g., S‑44 for hydrographic surveys), ensuring compatibility and quality of collected data.

The United Nations began supporting the IHO’s work in 1970 and tasked it with guiding national and private hydrographic organizations in conducting surveys. Based in Monaco, the IHO now counts 89 Member States. The IHO ensures that all navigable waters are properly surveyed and charted. It also establishes specifications and standards for hydrography and nautical charts.

Among IHO members are the Australian Hydrographic Office, Argentine Naval Hydrographic Service, Canadian Hydrographic Service, China’s Maritime Safety Administration (MSA), Cuba’s National Office of Hydrography and Geodesy, Egypt’s Naval Hydrographic Department (ENHD), France’s Service Hydrographique et Océanographique de la Marine (SHOM), Japan’s Hydrographic and Oceanographic Department, the Netherlands Hydrographic Service, the Norwegian Hydrographic Service, the Russian Department of Navigation and Oceanography, the UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO), and the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), notably the Office of Coast Survey / National Ocean Service (OCS/NOS). Most coastal countries maintain their own hydrographic agencies.

3. Methods and Instruments

3.1 Acoustic Technologies

Acoustic technologies rely on emission and reception of sound waves whose characteristics vary according to the objective.

• Single‑beam echo sounders (SBES) generally use frequencies between ~12 and 200 kHz: low frequencies (12–33 kHz) allow measurements at great depth, while high frequencies (up to ~200 kHz) offer better resolution but are limited to shallow areas.
• Multibeam echo sounders (MBES) emit hundreds of beams arranged in a fan, covering swath angles from ~120° to >170°. Typical frequency ranges are ~70–700 kHz depending on depth: low‑frequency systems (70–100 kHz) enable exploration beyond 5,000 m, while high‑frequency systems (>300 kHz) produce bathymetric models with metric to decimetric resolution in coastal zones.
• Side‑scan sonars (SSS) use frequencies typically between ~100 and 1,200 kHz; lower frequencies (100–500 kHz) offer wide coverage with lower resolution, whereas higher frequencies (600–1,200 kHz) detect smaller objects (cables, debris, biological structures) over shorter ranges.
• Sub‑bottom profilers (SBP) employ much lower frequencies, generally ~1–15 kHz, allowing penetration of marine sediments to tens of meters. Short‑pulse (chirp) systems offer fine vertical resolution (decimetric to sub‑decimetric), while the lowest frequencies enable deeper imaging at the expense of resolution.

These acoustic technologies also present constraints that must be considered in implementation. SBES, although robust and simple to use, provide only point information and thus require dense line spacing to produce complete maps. MBES can cover wide swaths but demand complex, costly systems and precise calibration to correct for sound‑speed effects and platform motion. Both SBES and MBES share the same resolution limitation: as depth increases, the sensor is farther from the seafloor, so both horizontal and vertical precision (and grid spacing) degrade.

Side‑scan sonars, while delivering highly detailed imagery, do not directly provide depth and must be interpreted carefully; performance depends strongly on seafloor nature and sediment roughness. They are often towed (towfish), adding deployment complexity. Finally, sub‑bottom profilers—essential for studying sediment stratigraphy—suffer limited resolution when deeper penetration is required and can be less effective on very hard or rocky bottoms. Each instrument therefore addresses specific needs but imposes trade‑offs among exploration depth, resolution, and operating conditions.

3.2 Complementary Technologies

Marine detection and measurement rely on a diversity of complementary sensors.

• Magnetometers detect anomalies in the Earth’s magnetic field caused by ferrous metallic objects, making them effective for locating wrecks, cables, and mines.
• CTD sensors (Conductivity, Temperature, Depth) are fundamental to oceanography, measuring conductivity (for salinity), temperature, and pressure‑derived depth, to describe the physical structure of the water column and associated processes.
• Airborne bathymetric lidar uses a green laser emitted from an aircraft or drone and reflected by the seafloor to determine depth in shallow coastal areas. It is particularly valuable where hydrographic vessels cannot operate and complements traditional acoustic methods.

Each technique has limitations. Magnetometers detect only ferrous materials and are sensitive to local magnetic disturbances, complicating interpretation. CTDs offer only point measurements along a vertical cast and often need to be multiplied or combined with other instruments to cover large areas; their deployment depends on at‑sea campaigns that can be costly and weather‑limited. Airborne bathymetric lidar provides rapid, detailed mapping of shallow areas, but range is strongly reduced by water turbidity and is ineffective beyond a few tens of meters depth. These technologies are complementary but impose technical and environmental constraints that must be accounted for when planning an exploration or study mission.

3.3 Acquisition Platforms

Implementing seafloor exploration technologies relies on a variety of platforms suited to mission objectives and environments.

• Specialized hydrographic vessels provide the most comprehensive solution, accommodating a broad range of acoustic and geophysical instruments; however, they incur high logistical costs and are weather‑dependent.
• Small boats and Uncrewed Surface Vehicles (USVs) offer flexible, lower‑cost options for coastal or confined areas, with potential for automated mapping.
• Underwater vehicles, whether remotely operated (ROVs) or autonomous (AUVs), access the seafloor directly for high‑precision surveys and, in the case of ROVs, allow intervention on detected structures or objects.
• Airborne platforms equipped with bathymetric lidar efficiently map shallow coastal areas where marine platforms are limited.

Each platform type has specific strengths. Specialized hydrographic ships offer the greatest payload capacity in sensors and scientific personnel, enabling comprehensive surveys and logistics for long oceanographic campaigns. In contrast, small boats and USVs deliver flexibility, reduced cost, and the ability to operate in hard‑to‑access areas—ideal for coastal or harbor surveys. AUVs acquire very‑high‑resolution data autonomously, including in deep or hazardous environments, while ROVs add the capability for direct intervention—indispensable for infrastructure inspection or object recovery. Airborne lidar provides rapid, wide‑area coverage of shallow coasts without depending on local navigability. Platform choice is always a compromise among spatial coverage, expected resolution, operational autonomy, and costs.

4. Applications of Hydrography

Hydrography plays an essential role across many domains, from maritime safety to defense via environment, economy, and risk management.

4.1 Navigation and Maritime Safety

A core mission of hydrography is to ensure navigation safety. Hydrographic surveys enable the production of official nautical charts by agencies such as NOAA, SHOM, or UKHO—indispensable for commercial and defense shipping. They also contribute to detecting navigational hazards, whether shoals, rocks, or wrecks.

4.2 Environment and Climate

Hydrography is fundamental to studying and preserving marine environments. Surveys support shoreline‑erosion monitoring, coral‑reef mapping, and surveillance of sensitive marine habitats. They are also used to analyze climate‑change effects on coasts, such as sea‑level rise and the evolution of flood‑prone areas.

4.3 Marine Resources and Blue Economy

Economically, hydrography supports the prospecting and development of marine resources, including offshore wind, oil, gas, and seabed minerals. It also has a strategic role in monitoring maritime infrastructure—telecommunication cables, pipelines, dikes, and ports—whose security is essential to international trade.

4.4 Natural Hazards and Disasters

Hydrographic techniques are used to map hazardous zones, for example areas prone to submarine landslides or tsunamis. They are also deployed in post‑disaster response—after earthquakes, hurricanes, or floods—to assess impacts on the seafloor, coasts, and infrastructure.

4.5 Research and Exploration

Hydrography enables mapping across many regions by collecting data essential for understanding both local and global ocean processes. It provides valuable inputs for geophysical and climate models. As a core branch of oceanography, hydrography yields increasing volumes of ocean data, including for areas still unexplored or poorly known.

4.6 Defense and Geostrategy

Hydrography has a major strategic dimension in the military domain. It contributes to mine countermeasures, preparation of naval and amphibious operations, and control of maritime space in a geopolitical context marked by competition for coastal zones and resources.

5. Current Challenges

Hydrographic campaigns entail high operational costs due to the mobilization of specialized vessels, qualified crews, and high‑end sensors (MBES, SBP, SSS). At the global scale, bathymetric coverage remains partial: only about ~25% of the ocean floor is mapped at a resolution meeting International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) standards. Data acquisition is also limited by extreme conditions: great depths (>6,000 m), drifting ice, turbidity, or geopolitical constraints in certain regions.

Finally, heterogeneous data formats and a lack of interoperability between systems hinder integration into global databases, complicating their use in operational oceanography and geoscience.

6. Future Perspectives

In response to these challenges, ambitions are high. The Seabed 2030 program aims to achieve complete mapping of the ocean floor by 2030 through data pooling and contributions from multiple actors. Platform hybridization—combining ships, USVs, AUVs, and aerial drones—will optimize coverage and reduce costs. In parallel, artificial intelligence offers new solutions to automate data processing, improve object detection, and refine seafloor classification. Collaborative sharing via global platforms such as GEBCO or EMODnet is already helping to democratize access to marine data. Finally, the development of a digital twin of the ocean, a real‑time dynamic model, paves the way for integrated and sustainable maritime‑space management.

7. Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs): Definition and Operation

An AUV (Autonomous Underwater Vehicle) is an unmanned underwater platform capable of executing a predefined mission without a permanent link to an operator. Its navigation typically combines:

• an Inertial Navigation System (INS) for relative trajectory,
• a Doppler Velocity Log (DVL) for bottom‑referenced speed,
• USBL/LBL (Ultra‑Short/Long Baseline) for position updates (optional),
• onboard hydrographic sensors (MBES, SSS, SBP, CTD).

Autonomy relies on onboard mission planning, with the possibility of adaptive behavior depending on acquired data. Near‑bottom navigation (altitude < 50 m) ensures metric to sub‑metric resolution for mapping.

8. Advantages of AUVs in Hydrography

AUVs offer a preferred solution for acquiring hydrographic data in environments inaccessible to conventional vessels, such as very shallow waters (<20 m), coral reefs, polar environments under ice, or exclusion zones related to conflicts. Submerged navigation makes them largely independent of surface conditions (swell, chop), ensuring trajectory stability and consistent data quality—particularly for high‑frequency sonars (>300 kHz) used for high‑resolution mapping. In deep‑water areas, the shorter sensor‑to‑seafloor range of AUVs compared with surface vessels enables higher‑resolution data, especially for bathymetry. Deploying AUVs can significantly reduce costs and carbon footprint by limiting reliance on large oceanographic ships and specialized crews. Their reduced acoustic, thermal, and hydrodynamic footprint minimizes environmental impact—a key requirement in protected or sensitive zones. Finally, cooperative use of AUV swarms allows rapid coverage of large areas by multiplying parallel tracks and increasing spatial data density, improving overall campaign efficiency.

9. Limitations and Technological Challenges

AUVs remain subject to several major constraints. Energy autonomy is the primary limitation: depending on mission profile, operating depth, and payload (MBES, SSS, SBP, CTD), operational endurance rarely exceeds a few dozen hours. Underwater acoustic communications, limited by attenuation and diffraction, offer very low bandwidth (<1 kbit/s) and high latency, preventing real‑time transmission of large bathymetric or sedimentological datasets. Vehicle loss risk remains non‑negligible in complex environments, such as deep canyons, wreck fields, or cavities, where relative positioning and inertial navigation may drift. Finally, the initial acquisition cost of an AUV equipped with advanced hydrographic sensors can reach several million euros per unit for some platforms—though this investment may be offset by reduced ship mobilization costs and increased campaign efficiency.

10. Practical Applications

Today, AUVs are deployed across a broad spectrum of operational and scientific applications. In hydrography, they are integrated into campaigns led by national agencies such as NOAA, SHOM, or UKHO, complementing ship‑borne multibeam surveys by delivering fine‑scale mapping in hard‑to‑access zones. In the offshore sector, they are a reference tool for prospecting energy and mineral resources (offshore wind, hydrocarbons, polymetallic nodules) and for inspecting critical subsea infrastructure such as pipelines, telecommunications cables, and port structures. In science, AUVs support studies in marine geology, underwater archaeology, and benthic ecology thanks to their ability to collect high‑resolution data in sensitive environments. They are also decisive in post‑disaster contexts (earthquakes, tsunamis, submarine landslides), enabling rapid, safe assessment of seafloor and infrastructure damage. Finally, in defense, AUVs are a strategic asset for mine countermeasures and geophysical intelligence, contributing to maritime‑area security and supporting naval operations.

11. Future Evolution of AUVs

Expected AUV developments focus on endurance, decision‑making autonomy, and interoperability. Increasing energy autonomy is a priority: the adoption of next‑generation batteries (Li‑S, Li‑air), hydrogen fuel cells, or hybrid systems (recharge via USVs or subsea stations) will significantly extend mission duration beyond today’s dozens of hours. Onboard artificial intelligence capabilities will enable adaptive navigation (obstacle avoidance, dynamic mission replanning) and in‑situ processing of acoustic data (automatic seafloor classification, detection of anthropogenic or biological objects), reducing dependence on surface communications.

The development of cooperative AUV fleets, operating as synchronized swarms and integrated with USVs and motherships, will increase spatial coverage and sampling density while optimizing logistics. At the same time, software and hardware interoperability is progressing through the adoption of international standards (IHO S‑100, ISO, INSPIRE), ensuring data compatibility and facilitating integration into collaborative infrastructures such as GEBCO or EMODnet.

In the long term, these advances should yield highly automated, distributed, and interconnected hydrography—placing AUVs at the center of global systems such as the digital twin of the ocean, a strategic tool for sustainable management, scientific research, and maritime security.

12. Contribution of SEABER Micro‑AUVs

Cost Reduction and Simplified Logistics

SEABER’s range of micro‑AUVs is based on a compact, cost‑effective architecture that enables hydrographic campaigns at a reduced cost—on the order of 3 to 5 times lower than conventional AUVs.

These vehicles are optimized for deployment from virtually any watercraft (hydrographic vessel, launch, RIB, kayak), eliminating reliance on specialized oceanographic ships and heavy lifting gear. They can also be launched and recovered from shore, simplifying operations in coastal zones or water bodies that are difficult for vessels to access.

With a mass under 10 kg and a length under 1 m, each micro‑AUV can be handled by a single operator, significantly reducing logistics, team size, and operating costs.

SEABER micro‑AUVs are also user‑friendly via the SEAPLAN mission‑design and maintenance software used for drone programming and data retrieval. A short training course provided by SEABER is sufficient to enable operators to deploy an AUV and collect data.

Energy Autonomy and Extended Endurance

SEABER micro‑AUVs offer a nominal autonomy of 8–10 hours, depending on payload, and support cumulative missions reaching up to 500 km of coverage.

This endurance surpasses typical limitations of smaller AUVs, whose autonomy is often constrained by onboard power consumption. An optimized energy architecture and reduced‑size propulsion increase the endurance/consumption ratio, delivering broader spatiotemporal coverage per logistics unit.

Precise Navigation Without External Infrastructure

Micro‑AUVs integrate the INX inertial navigation system, optionally coupled with a DVL (Doppler Velocity Log), guaranteeing position accuracy on the order of 1–2% of distance traveled.

This level of performance is obtained without resorting to external positioning systems like USBL (Ultra‑Short Baseline) or LBL (Long Baseline), which are generally costly and complex to deploy. However, an USBL system equips the MARVEL range of micro‑AUVs, providing enhanced positioning capability when required.

This capability allows precise missions in environments where installing acoustic infrastructure is not feasible (deep zones, sensitive ecosystems, rapid operations).

Swarm (Fleet) Operations

The software and hardware architecture of the micro‑AUVs is designed for fleet operation. Each drone can carry its own payload; they can be deployed as a swarm to collect different data types simultaneously or to multiply operational capacity and spatial coverage.

Positioning of MARVEL drones via the surface unit equipped with the USBL modem allows tracking of up to 10 drones at the same time.

This task‑sharing approach increases mission robustness (resilience to single‑unit failure) and densifies spatial sampling, optimizing campaign effectiveness.

Modular Payload Architecture (YUCO & MARVEL Ranges)

The YUCO range is built on a common platform and offered in multiple specialized versions, each optimized for a mission or sensor type:

• YUCO‑CTD: equipped with a CTD probe (Conductivity, Temperature, Depth) for water‑column characterization and oceanographic profiles.
• YUCO‑SCAN: integrates a side‑scan sonar (SSS) for seafloor mapping, object detection, and benthic‑habitat characterization.
• YUCO‑PAM: configured for Passive Acoustic Monitoring, dedicated to acquiring underwater acoustic data (marine mammals, anthropogenic activity, ambient noise).
• YUCO‑PHYSICO: carries multi‑parameter physico‑chemical sensors (pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, etc.) for environmental monitoring and water‑quality surveillance.
• YUCO‑CARRIER: a modular version serving as a platform for custom external probes or sensors (magnetometer, eDNA sampler, chemical probes, etc.).
• YUCO‑LUMEN: equipped with optical imaging and photogrammetry systems for high‑resolution visual data to support 3D mapping and habitat studies.

This modularity allows rapid integration of custom payloads (eDNA samplers, magnetometers, physico‑chemical probes) while maintaining a compact footprint and short preparation time.

Built on the same compact platform as YUCO, the MARVEL range targets security, coast‑guard operations, mine countermeasures (MCM), and anti‑submarine warfare (ASW) training. Each version is optimized for a specific task and integrates acoustic positioning (USBL), communications, and options such as data encryption or self‑scuttling.

Common Specifications (YUCO & MARVEL):

• Bi‑compartment structure:
• Dry section (center/aft) sealed and not user‑accessible—houses navigation (INX©), batteries, inertial sensors, and electronics.
• Wet section (forward) is modular and user‑accessible, with plug‑and‑play connectivity for various payloads.
• Autonomy up to 10 hours, speed up to 6 knots, operating depth up to 300 m, weight ~10 kg, length 1–1.3 m.
• Advanced navigation: INX system, DVL, positioning and communication via USBL acoustic modem (SeaTrac), SEAPLAN interface, and simplified recovery with SEACOMM (GPS localization, return‑to‑base commands).

MARVEL Variants:

• MARVEL‑SCAN: equipped with a high‑definition side‑scan sonar (multiple frequency options) for seafloor mapping, object identification, and littoral‑habitat inspection.
• MARVEL‑MAGNETO: fitted with a fluxgate magnetometer (Sensys) with tri‑axial XYZ at 100 Hz, <150 pT resolution, and <20 ppm linearity; suited to detecting magnetic anomalies (wrecks, metallic objects, unexploded ordnance).
• MARVEL‑MBES: equipped with a multibeam echo sounder—Imagenex 260 kHz (120 to 480 beams, ~0.02% of range resolution, rates up to 40 fps)—ideal for rapid, high‑resolution bathymetric mapping.
• MARVEL‑3DS: integrates a 3D side‑scan sonar (PingDSP 450 kHz), delivering high‑resolution imagery with wide coverage (up to 14× water depth) and enabling detailed bathymetric products via 3D conversion of SSS data.
• MARVEL‑LUMEN: equipped with a high‑resolution underwater camera with LED lighting for geo‑referenced stills and video—targeting photogrammetry, habitat imaging, and visual surveillance.

Multi‑Parameter Acquisition and Ecological Sampling

Simultaneous integration of physico‑chemical, acoustic, and optical sensors enables exhaustive characterization of benthic habitats and the water column.

Acquired datasets cover varied parameters: CTD profiles, optical imagery (photogrammetry, video), sonar mapping, bathymetry, magnetometry, passive acoustic recordings, and indirect biodiversity sampling via eDNA technologies.

This combination supports a multi‑scale, multi‑parameter approach essential for biodiversity studies and environmental monitoring in sensitive contexts (marine protected areas, offshore industrial sites, subsea infrastructure).

Conclusion

Hydrography stands at the core of contemporary challenges: maritime safety, sustainable resource exploitation, environmental protection, and defense. Thanks to technological innovation and international mapping initiatives, it is moving toward a global, collaborative, and digital approach.

Integrating AUVs into hydrographic missions is a major step toward more flexible, precise, and sustainable practices. They enable finer mapping, reduce human risk, and provide access to difficult environments. AUVs are therefore becoming essential tools to address growing challenges in understanding, exploiting, and protecting aquatic environments.

The hydrography of the future will be autonomous, collaborative, and adaptive, with AUVs at the heart of marine observation systems.

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